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Einsatzgruppen (German) Battalion-sized, mobile killing units of the Security Police and SS Security Service (Schutzstaffel) that followed the German armies into the Soviet Union in June 1941 as part of Operation Barbarossa. These units were supported by units of the uniformed German Order Police and auxiliaries of volunteers (Estonian, Latvian, Lithuanian, and Ukrainian). The primary objective of the Einsatzgruppen was to carry out mass shootings of Jews and other targeted groups. Their operations aimed to eliminate any perceived threats to the Nazi regime in newly occupied territories. Einsatzgruppen units utilized a variety of methods for mass killings. Victims were often lined up at the edge of mass graves or in secluded areas and shot with machine guns. The killings were characterized by their brutality and dehumanization. Victims were forced to undress, and many were subjected to humiliation before being executed. Some notable mass executions included the Babi Yar massacre near Kyiv, where approximately 33,000 Jews were murdered in just two days, and other similar mass killings across Eastern Europe. Estimates suggest that the Einsatzgruppen were responsible for the murder of approximately 1.5 million Jews and hundreds of thousands of others, including Roma, communists, disabled individuals, and Soviet prisoners of war in what has become known as the Holocaust by Bullets. The psychological toll on the members of the Einsatzgruppen was significant. Many perpetrators experienced emotional distress and psychological trauma from their involvement in mass killings and requested and received different assignments. Some sought to rationalize their actions, while others became increasingly desensitized to violence.
Eugenics is a social philosophy and scientific movement that emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, advocating for the improvement of the genetic quality of a population through selective breeding and various forms of social intervention. The term "eugenics" was coined by the British scientist Francis Galton in 1883. Galton believed that human populations could be improved by encouraging the reproduction of people with "desirable" traits and discouraging those with "undesirable" traits. The movement gained traction in several countries, particularly in the United States, Germany, and the United Kingdom, and influenced social policies related to reproduction, marriage, and health. Eugenics was grounded in the belief that certain traits, including intelligence, morality, and physical ability, were hereditary and could be improved through controlled reproduction. Eugenics often intersected with racial theories, leading to the classification of certain races as superior or inferior. The belief in racial superiority was used to justify discrimination, forced sterilizations, and segregation. Eugenic policies included forced sterilization of individuals deemed "unfit" to reproduce, such as people with mental illnesses, disabilities, or those from marginalized communities and marriage restrictions and immigration controls to limit the entry of "undesirable" populations. The Nazis adopted eugenics as a core part of their ideology, intertwining it with their beliefs about racial purity and superiority. They sought to create a "master race" through the selective breeding of Aryans (e.g. Lebenborn project) and the elimination of those deemed inferior. The Nazi regime implemented extensive eugenics policies, including forced sterilizations, euthanasia programs for the disabled (known as Aktion T4), and the systematic extermination of millions of people during the Holocaust, particularly Jews, Roma, and others labeled as "racially inferior."
Euthanasia The original meaning of this term was an easy and painless death for the terminally ill. However, the Nazi euthanasia program took on quite a different meaning: the taking of eugenic measures to improve the quality of the German “race.” This program culminated in enforced “mercy” deaths for the incurably insane, permanently disabled, deformed, and “superfluous.” Three major classifications were developed: 1) euthanasia for incurables; 2) direct extermination by “special treatment”; and 3) experiments in mass sterilization. The most infamous euthanasia initiative was the T4 Program, named after the address of the program's headquarters at Tiergartenstraße 4 in Berlin. This program was officially launched in 1939 and aimed to exterminate people with disabilities and mental illnesses. The T4 Program involved the systematic killing of patients in psychiatric hospitals, nursing homes, and other institutions. The Nazis used gas chambers, lethal injection, and starvation as methods of execution. Victims were often deceived into believing they were being taken for medical treatment or improved living conditions. They were transported to euthanasia centers, where they were murdered en masse. Gas chambers were initially used for the extermination of concentration camp prisoners but were adapted for the T4 program. Other methods included the use of carbon monoxide gas and overdoses of medications. Estimates suggest that between 70,000 and 300,000 individuals were killed as part of the T4 Program. This number includes people with various disabilities, as well as those with chronic illnesses and the elderly. The program was carried out with bureaucratic efficiency, utilizing records from hospitals and institutions to identify potential victims. Medical professionals were complicit in the killings, often playing a direct role in the selection and execution processes. Initially, the T4 Program was met with little public opposition, as many people accepted the ideology that justified the killings. However, as the scope of the atrocities became clearer, there was growing resistance, including from within the medical community and the Catholic Church. In 1941, due to increasing public outcry and opposition, the T4 Program was officially halted. However, the practice of killing disabled and mentally ill individuals continued through other means, including covert killings in hospitals.
Evian Conference convened by President Franklin D. Roosevelt on July 6, 1938 to discuss the growing refugee crisis caused by the rise of Nazism in Germany and the persecution of Jews and other groups Representatives of thirty-two nations, including the United States, United Kingdom, France, and several Latin American nations, met at Evian-les-Bains, France. The conference resulted in little concrete action. While various countries expressed sympathy for the Jewish plight, most were unwilling to accept large numbers of refugees. The delegates cited economic, political, and social concerns as reasons for their reluctance. The United States, while acknowledging the crisis, did not commit to increasing immigration quotas significantly. The conference highlighted the failure of the international community to provide meaningful support to those fleeing persecution, setting a precedent for the inadequate response to the Holocaust. Only the Dominican Republic accepted Jewish refugees. The Evian Conference has been criticized for its failure to effectively address the refugee crisis and protect vulnerable populations. It serves as a reminder of the complexities of humanitarian responses and the challenges of international cooperation in the face of mass persecution.
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Fascism A social and political ideology with the primary guiding principle that the state or nation is the highest priority, rather than personal or individual freedoms; a centralized totalitarian state headed by a charismatic leader; expansion of the nation, preferably by military force; forcible suppression of and sometimes physical annihilation of opponents both real and imagined. Italian Fascism: Founded by Benito Mussolini in the early 20th century, Italian fascism was the first major fascist movement. Mussolini established a totalitarian regime in Italy after coming to power in 1922. The regime emphasized nationalism, militarism, and expansionism, leading to aggressive foreign policies, including invasions of Ethiopia and Albania. Nazi Germany: The most infamous example of fascism is the regime led by Adolf Hitler in Germany from 1933 to 1945. The Nazi Party combined fascism with a racist ideology, promoting Aryan supremacy and anti-Semitism. The Nazis implemented policies of expansionism, militarism, and genocide, resulting in the Holocaust and the deaths of millions during World War II.
The "Final Solution to the Jewish Question" was official code name for the Nazi plan to systematically exterminate the Jewish population of Europe during World War II. The term "Jewish Question" referred to the Nazi belief that Jews were a problem to be dealt with. The Final Solution was implemented in stages, beginning with the mass shootings of Jews by mobile killing units (Einsatzgruppen) in Eastern Europe and culminating in the construction of extermination camps equipped with gas chambers. The decision to pursue the Final Solution was made by Adolf Hitler and other high-ranking Nazis, with the goal of achieving the complete annihilation of European Jewry. The plan was formalized and coordinated at the Wannsee Conference held near Berlin in January, 1942, where senior officials discussed the logistics of deporting Jews to extermination camps and organizing their systematic murder. The program was deceptively disguised as “resettlement in the East.” The Final Solution resulted in the deaths of six million Jews, as well as millions of others, including Roma and Sinti people, Soviet prisoners of war, disabled individuals, and others deemed undesirable by the Nazis. It stands as one of the most horrific examples of genocide in human history.
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Gas Chambers were large chambers in which people were executed by poison gas. They were used by the Nazis during the Holocaust in the extermination camps to systematically murder millions of Jews and others deemed undesirable by the regime. The gas chambers were designed to kill large numbers of people quickly and efficiently. The most commonly used gas was Zyklon B, a cyanide-based pesticide. Victims were deceived into entering the gas chambers under the guise of taking a shower, and once inside, the doors were sealed, and the Zyklon B pellets were dropped into the chamber through vents in the ceiling or walls. The pellets released hydrogen cyanide gas, which was lethal when inhaled. The use of gas chambers was part of the Nazis' "Final Solution to the Jewish Question.” Gas chambers were installed in several extermination camps, including Auschwitz, Treblinka, Sobibor, and Belzec. These camps were located in occupied Poland, where the majority of the Holocaust's mass killings took place. The use of gas chambers represented a new level of industrialized killing and was a central part of the Holocaust's machinery of genocide. The gas chambers, along with other methods such as mass shootings and forced labor, resulted in the deaths of millions of people.
Genocide The deliberate and systematic destruction of a religious, racial, national, or cultural group. Genocide is the intentional destruction, in whole or in part, of a particular group based on their ethnicity, nationality, religion, or other defining characteristic. It is considered one of the most severe human rights abuses and is a crime under international law. The term was coined by Raphael Lemkin in 1944 and was later defined in the 1948 United Nations Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide. Examples of genocide include the Holocaust, the Rwandan Genocide, and the Armenian Genocide. Preventing genocide and holding perpetrators accountable are crucial tasks for the international community.
Gentile A non-Jewish person.
Gestapo Acronym of Geheime Staatspolizei (Secret State Police), official secret state police of the Third Reich and the Nazis’ main tool of oppression and destruction, led by Hermann Göring. It was established in 1933, shortly after Adolf Hitler became Chancellor, and was tasked with investigating and combating political dissent and opposition to the Nazi regime. The Gestapo was notorious for its brutal methods of interrogation, intimidation, and suppression of perceived enemies of the state. It played a key role in implementing the policies of persecution and genocide that characterized the Nazi regime, particularly targeting Jews, political dissidents, homosexuals, and others deemed "undesirable" by the Nazis. After World War II, the Gestapo was disbanded, and its members were prosecuted for war crimes and crimes against humanity.
Ghetto This term originated in the Middle Ages, where Jewish communities were confined to specific areas and faced various restrictions on their rights and freedoms. During the Holocaust, the Nazis established ghettos in occupied Eastern Europe (e.g., Krakow, Łódź, Warsaw, Vilna, Riga, Minsk) to isolate and control Jewish populations before deporting them to concentration camps for forced labor or death camps for extermination. Surrounded by barbed wire or walls, the ghettos were often sealed so that people were prevented from leaving or entering. They were overcrowded, unsanitary, and characterized by extreme deprivation, starvation, and suffering.
Great Depression A deep, worldwide, economic contraction beginning in 1929 which caused particular hardship in Germany which was already reeling from huge reparation payments following World War I and hyperinflation. Unemployment skyrocketed, peaking at around 30% by 1932. Millions of Germans found themselves without work, leading to widespread hardship and despair. Many banks failed during the Depression, leading to a loss of savings and further economic instability. The banking crisis deepened public mistrust in the financial system and the Weimar government. The economic turmoil created a fertile ground for political extremism. As unemployment rose and living standards declined, many Germans became disillusioned with the Weimar Republic and turned to radical parties for solutions. The Nazi Party, led by Adolf Hitler, exploited the economic crisis, using propaganda to blame the Weimar government, Communists, and Jews for the country’s problems. They promised to restore national pride, revive the economy, and create jobs. Understanding the link between the Great Depression and the rise of fascism in Germany serves as a reminder of how economic instability can lead to political radicalization and societal upheaval.
Greater German Reich (Großdeutsches Reich) refers to Nazi Germany, especially from 1938 to 1945, during Adolf Hitler's leadership. The concept of the Greater German Reich emerged prominently after the Anschluss (annexation of Austria in 1938) and signaled the expansionist goal of uniting all German-speaking peoples and territories under one nation, driven by the Nazi regime's ideology of a racially pure and dominant German state. Its vision included incorporating territories with significant ethnic German populations, such as Sudetenland, parts of Poland, and other regions in Eastern Europe. This policy was pursued aggressively during World War II, leading to widespread occupation and annexation of various countries. The Greater German Reich became a reality for a short time.