German Occupation During the War
The Holocaust in the Netherlands stands as a stark testament to the atrocities committed during World War II. Despite the country's history of neutrality, religious tolerance and a well-integrated Jewish community, the German occupation from 1940 to 1945 led to the systematic persecution and extermination of Dutch Jews.
Nazi Germany invaded the Netherlands on May 10, 1940, stunning the country with a surprise aerial attack. As German paratroopers descended, the Netherlands was forced to relinquish its status as a neutral country (since the end of the Belgian War of Independence in 1830) to resist invasion. They blew up bridges, hoping to slow the enemy down, and defended their country as best they could; however, the Germans were better prepared, having planned this attack for months, and vastly outnumbered the Dutch. In less than a week, the Netherlands surrendered, Queen Wilhelmina and her government ministers fled to England, and Hitler appointed Arthur Seyss-Inquart, a high-ranking member of the Nazi Party, as Reichskommissar, in charge of the civilian administration of the occupied Netherlands.
Formerly governor of Austria under the Third Reich and deputy to Hans Frank in the General Government of German-occupied Poland, Seyss-Inquart implemented a series of anti-Jewish measures aimed at isolating and identifying the Jewish population. He banned all political parties except the NSB, the Dutch Nazi Party. He was responsible for the execution of Dutch nationals and for the rounding up of the Jews of the Netherlands. On May 7, 1945, he was arrested by British forces near Hamburg and at the Nuremberg Trials, he was charged with war crimes and crimes against humanity, especially for his role in the Holocaust and the persecution of Dutch citizens and sentenced to death and hanged.
Under Seyss-Inquart , anti-Jewish legislation was rolled out incrementally with ruthless efficiency: Jewish civil servants were dismissed from government positions; Jews lost their professions and their homes; Jewish students were expelled from schools and universities; transportation was restricted; Jews were banned from public places such as theaters and cinemas, parks, swimming pools, cafes. By April 29, 1942, wearing identifying yellow stars with the ominous script "Jood" (Jew) on their clothing, further segregating Jews from the general populace. Businesses and other assets had to be registered, and a Jewish council - the Joodse Raad - was established with Abraham Asscher and David Cohen in charge of implementing Nazi policy, with maximal compliance with respect to the Jews. The systematic deportation of Jews from the Netherlands commenced in July 1942. The Westerbork transit camp served as a primary hub for these deportations, facilitating the transport of Jews to extermination camps such as Auschwitz and Sobibor. (A second transit camp at Vught opened in January 1943.) Between 1942 and 1944, approximately 107,000 Jews were deported from the Netherlands; tragically, only about 5,200 survived. This means that roughly 75% of the Dutch Jewish community perished during the Holocaust, a higher percentage than in most other Western European countries.
Dutch police assisted the Nazi authorities in rounding up Jews, as did the so-called Henneicke Column, who were essentially Dutch bounty hunters paid for the capture of Jews hiding from persecution. The members of the Henneicke Column were paid a bounty of 7.50 guilders (equivalent to about $50 today) for each Jew they captured. This financial incentive led them to aggressively seek out hidden Jews, often using informants and deception to uncover hiding places. The group operated with extreme ruthlessness, frequently using intimidation, betrayal, and violence to achieve their goals. Between March and October 1943, the Henneicke Column was responsible for the arrest of an estimated 8,000-9,000 Jews. Their actions contributed significantly to the near-total destruction of the Jewish community in the Netherlands.
In January 1941, Jews were mandated to register themselves, resulting in approximately 160,000 individuals being identified, including about 25,000 refugees from Germany and Austria. Critically important in rounding up Jews was the work of Dutch civil servant J.L. Lentz, head of the Population Registration Office in The Hague. Lentz developed an extensive population registry and an identity card system that meticulously documented citizens' racial backgrounds. This centralized database and the so-called "dot maps" showing the population density of Jews by district became an invaluable tools for the Nazis, facilitating the efficient identification and subsequent deportation of Jews in 1942.
While there were no officially designated ghettos, Jewish people were concentrated in specific neighborhoods, particularly in Amsterdam, where a large Jewish community already existed before the war. The Jewish Quarter (Jodenbuurt) became an informal area of segregation, but it was not physically enclosed with walls or fences. The Nazis imposed severe curfews and restrictions on movement and daily life in these areas, limiting Jewish people's access to services, employment, and public spaces. The Nazis viewed the Dutch infrastructure and administrative system as efficient enough to enforce anti-Jewish policies without the need for ghettos. Instead of confinement, the Nazis relied on registration, forced labor, and gradual deportation to concentration and extermination camps.
While the registration process had been advertised as merely a bureaucratic formality, the proceedings of the following month would prove the sinister intentions behind them. In Amsterdam, where half of the Netherlands’ Jewish population lived, the Nazis set up a second Jewish quarter in the working class “Jordaan” neighborhood. In late January and early February, the Nazis and their Dutch collaborators marched into the quarter, harassing Jews, provoking fights, and forcing Gentile cafés and restaurants to put up signs reading “Jews not wanted.” In an ice cream parlor, the Nazis instigated a particularly violent brawl, in which local Jews and their neighbors defended themselves. By the end, they destroyed the parlor, and one Nazi was killed. In retribution, the SS chief of police ordered 400 Jewish men to be arrested and sent to the concentration camps of Mauthausen and Buchenwald. News of these arrests spread throughout the city, sparking rage and powerlessness. The locals refused to stand by idly as this happened in their once peaceful city. They organized a general strike, beginning in working-class areas and spreading throughout the city. As all public transportation came to a halt on February 25, 1941, the Nazi administration took notice. Enraged, the they ordered people back to work and inflicted violence on those marching in the street. Within a few days, the strike collapsed.
Resistance and Collaboration Efforts
The Dutch Resistance during World War II was crucial in opposing Nazi occupation and saving countless lives. When Germany invaded the Netherlands in 1940, many Dutch citizens refused to accept the oppressive regime, forming underground networks to fight back. Resistance groups engaged in acts of sabotage, such as derailing trains, disrupting communication lines, and stealing ration cards to support those in hiding. They also published underground newspapers to counter Nazi propaganda and provided intelligence to the Allies. Despite severe Nazi crackdowns, including arrests, deportations, and executions, the resistance continued to grow, involving individuals from all walks of life, including students, clergy, and former military personnel. An example of the actions of the Resistance was the bombing of the Amsterdam Population Register on March 27, 1943, in Amsterdam. Led by Willem Arondeus, a Dutch artist and Johan Brouwer, a Spanish literature professor and author, the attack aimed to destroy population records to hinder Nazi efforts to track and deport Jewish residents. Disguised in police uniforms, they infiltrated the building and used explosives to destroy thousands of records. Though partially successful, most of the group was later captured, Arondeus and Brouwer were executed in July 1943. The bravery of the Dutch Resistance made it increasingly difficult for the Nazis to maintain control, weakening the occupation forces and aiding the eventual liberation of the Netherlands in May 1945.
Despite the oppressive environment and pervasive danger, numerous brave Dutch citizens and organizations, such as the Landelijke Organisatie voor Hulp aan Onderduikers (National Organization for Helping Those in Hiding) endeavored to protect and hide Jews and other persecuted individuals from Nazi persecution. Organizations coordinated safe houses, forged identity documents, and arranged escape routes. Families risked their lives to shelter Jews, resistance fighters, and downed Allied pilots. The story of Anne Frank, though tragic, highlights the extensive network of Dutch citizens who hid Jewish families from deportation. In total, an estimated 25,000 Jews survived in hiding, thanks to these efforts. Remarkably, about two-thirds of those in hiding survived the war. Notable among the rescuers was Tina Strobos, a medical student who provided refuge to Jews in her home, forged documents, and served as a courier for the resistance. Despite constant threats of betrayal and severe punishment by the Nazi regime, the Dutch resistance remained steadfast, demonstrating extraordinary courage and compassion in the face of tyranny.
Collaborators with the Nazi Regime
While the Dutch resistance played a significant role in opposing the occupation, collaboration with the Nazis also occurred at various levels, involving individuals, political groups, and institutions. This collaboration was driven by ideological alignment, economic benefits, fear, or coercion. One of the most notorious collaborators was the Nationaal-Socialistische Beweging (NSB), the Dutch Nazi party led by Anton Mussert. Founded in 1931, the NSB openly supported Hitler’s ideology and encouraged Dutch citizens to cooperate with the German occupiers. When the Nazis, under the leadership of Seyss-Inquart, took control of the Netherlands in May 1940, the NSB gained influence, with its members filling administrative and policing roles. However, the party never achieved mass popularity, as most Dutch citizens remained indifferent or hostile to their pro-German stance. Another significant form of collaboration was in law enforcement and administration. Some Dutch police officers and civil servants assisted the Nazis in enforcing anti-Jewish policies, including the registration, arrest, and deportation of Jews to concentration and extermination camps. The Dutch railway company also played a role by transporting thousands of Jewish prisoners to transit camps like Westerbork and Vught, from where they were sent to Auschwitz and Sobibor. Economic collaboration was another factor. Dutch businesses that worked with the Nazis profited from the war economy. Some companies supplied goods, services, and infrastructure to the German war machine. Others seized property from deported Jews, often under the guise of legal transactions. Despite the presence of collaboration, Dutch society is often remembered for its resistance against the Nazis. Nonetheless, the role of collaborators remains a dark and complex chapter in Dutch history, illustrating the difficult choices individuals faced under occupation.
Impact and Remembrance
Several factors contributed to the disproportionately high death toll among Dutch Jews:
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Geographical Challenges: The flat terrain, lack of mountains and forests, and dense population made clandestine movement difficult, limiting escape routes and hiding places for those seeking to evade capture. The many rivers and canals created difficulty for tanks and heavy military equipment to maneuver quickly. The Dutch Resistance, however, used the few forests, dunes, and rural areas to hide weapons, radio equipment, and fugitives.
The southern Netherlands was liberated by Allied forces in late 1944, but the north remained under Nazi control. During the winter of 1944-1945, the Netherlands experienced a severe famine known as the Dutch Hunger Winter (Hongerwinter). This famine was the result of a combination of factors, including a harsh winter, a German blockade of food and fuel shipments to the western Netherlands, and the effects of the war on food supplies. The German blockade, was a retaliatory measure against the Dutch population for supporting the Allied forces. As a result, food supplies in the western part of the country, including cities like Amsterdam and Rotterdam, were severely limited. Hongerwinter had devastating consequences, particularly for vulnerable groups such as children and the elderly. Many people suffered from malnutrition and starvation, leading to widespread illness and death. It is estimated that tens of thousands of people died as a direct result of the famine, and many more suffered long-term health consequences. Hongerwinter ended in May 1945, when the Nazi occupation of the Netherlands came to an end. The famine had a lasting impact on the country, both in terms of the immediate humanitarian crisis and its long-term effects on public health and the economy. The Netherlands was fully liberated by the Allies on May 5, 1945, days before Nazi Germany's surrender.
The Holocaust in the Netherlands exemplifies the catastrophic consequences of unchecked hatred and discrimination. It also highlights the profound impact of individual and collective actions, both in perpetrating atrocities and in acts of courageous resistance. The lessons drawn from this period continue to resonate, emphasizing the necessity of vigilance in protecting human rights and dignity.
In the decades following World War II, the Netherlands has grappled with the legacy of the Holocaust. Efforts to acknowledge and educate about this dark chapter have been ongoing. The National Holocaust Museum in Amsterdam, which opened in March 2024, serves as a poignant reminder of the atrocities committed and emphasizes the importance of remembrance. Additionally, exhibitions like the Anne Frank House offer immersive experiences, allowing visitors to connect deeply with the personal narratives of those who suffered. Various monuments and memorials are present in Dutch cities, such as Stolpersteine and the National Holocaust Names Memorial.
Dutch complicity with the Nazis during World War II is a complex and sensitive subject. While many Dutch citizens resisted Nazi rule and risked their lives to save Jewish neighbors, others collaborated actively or passively with the occupying German forces. This duality reflects the varying responses to occupation pressures, personal motives, and moral choices.
