Safe Haven at Fort Ontario

As war raged through Europe, concern about homeless refugees, escaping Nazi persecution and potential death, was debated in the United States.  A combination of strict immigration policies and antisemitic sentiment resulted in few entrants.  Pressure from both humanitarians, including First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt and Jewish groups, met with inaction on the part of President Franklin Delano Roosevelt.  

In 1944, with the tide of the war turning the Allies’ way, President Roosevelt made a symbolic gesture. His Secretary of the Interior, Harold Ickes, sent Special Assistant Ruth Gruber to Italy to bring back nearly 1,000 war refugees to America.  The President announced his plan to create an emergency refugee shelter at Fort Ontario in Oswego, New York. Under this plan, refugees from different countries were selected and transported from Naples, Italy to upstate New York. Roosevelt circumvented the rigid immigration quotas by identifying these refugees as his “guests,” a status that gave them no legal standing but required their return to Europe once conditions permitted their repatriation after the war ended. 

The 982 men, women and children were specially selected for the trip from approximately 3000 applicants. They came mostly from Poland, Germany, Austria, Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, and Greece. 93% were Jewish. 187 were under the age of sixteen; 116 were over the age of 60.  Gruber remarked, “The government officials making the selection chose families and survivors with skills that could help run a camp in America. The first priority was refugees who had been in concentration camps and escaped.” They had no legal right to be in America – except for President Roosevelt’s invitation. He promised Congress that these “guests” would go back to Europe when the war ended. In fact, the refugees had to sign a document to that effect.    

But spirits lifted as the ship pulled into New York harbor, and cheers greeted the sight of the Statue of Liberty. Said Ivo Lederer,

Upon arrival in New York City, the refugees underwent Army processing; specifically, they were stripped and sprayed with disinfectants by American soldiers, and their clothing was steam-cleaned. When the Army finished processing the refugees, they boarded a Delaware and Lackawanna train to Oswego. For many the week-long train ride was a stark reminder of those bound for concentration camps. Upon arrival at the former military base at Fort Ontario guests were faced with a six-foot barbed wire fence (another disturbing symbol for the refugees).  Military personnel greeted them at their new home.

Refugee Walter Greenberg commented, “I felt deceived. I felt that I should have been free. I mean, I felt wonderful. I had doctors. I had nurses. I had food. I came to school. Oswegonians were very kind… What good is it to have all the amenities of life if one still isn’t free? 

The War Refugee Board (WRB) was responsible for creating the camp, selecting the occupants, and overall policy until the shelter's closure on June 6, 1945. The War Relocation Authority (WRA), which had experience running Japanese Relocation Centers, managed daily camp life. There were differences between the WRB and WRA regarding camp policies; the WRA advocated for setting policies before establishing camps to prevent rebellion, while the WRB preferred implementing policies gradually to test public opinion and gain support.  

The Oswego Chamber of Commerce sponsored a welcoming ceremony. A message of greeting from Secretary of the Interior Harold L. Ickes was read by Dillon S. Meyer, director of the War Relocation Authority:  

“On behalf of the United States Government,” the message stated, “I extend to you a hearty welcome to this refuge shelter for the duration of the war, or until you can be safely returned to your homelands across the sea. I hope that this haven from the intolerance, suffering, and persecution that you have undergone will in some measure ease your tragic memories.  The United States has become a great republic and a strong democracy through the peaceful intermingling of all races and creeds. Let me assure you that we shall endeavor to make your sojourn at the Oswego center as comfortable as it is possible to make it, and to this end, we solicit your full cooperation. I hope from my heart that the time which you spend in this retreat will bring you each renewed strength and faith with which to face a future in which the dignity of the individual man will be recognized and assured everywhere.”

After commending the residents of Oswego and the surrounding communities for having helped in every conceivable way with the necessary preparations for the successful operation of the Shelter, Mr. Meyer outlined the rules governing the War Relocation Authority’s administration of the shelter: 

“Food,” he declared, “will be served in mess halls operated by the government, under wartime rationing restrictions, but insofar as possible menus will allow for the tastes of the refugees. Housing will be assigned to each family according to its size and composition. These apartment units will have running water, cots, tables, chairs and clothing lockers. Fuel for heating, electric lighting, laundry facilities and other essential household needs will be provided. Some unattached persons will reside in dormitories. Health and sanitation, including sanitary inspections, medical examinations and public health activities will be under the supervision of the Chief Medical Officer at the Shelter, assisted by any of the refugees who have the necessary qualifications to aid in these fields. Emergency medical cases for which care at the shelter is not feasible, will be handled at outside public hospitals at public expense.”

Life Inside the Camp

The Fort Ontario administration placed a one-month quarantine on the refugees. No one could leave or enter the camp, resulting in incredibly meaningful exchanges between the refugees and the Oswegonians along the fence. Linda Weinstein, for example, remembers passing toys over the fence to refugee children. Eva Kaufmann Dye shared that her father Branko Kaufmann was given a pair of shoes by an unknown Oswegonian and the gifted shoes were of better quality than the ones the Oswegonian man had on his own feet.

Despite their willingness to work, refugees were generally not allowed to seek employment outside the camp. This restriction was due to their classification as “guests” of the president rather than immigrants. As a result, they contributed to camp life through community tasks like cooking, cleaning, and teaching. Additionally, some took on roles as translators or assisted with administrative duties. 

Life at Fort Ontario was not without its hardships. While the camp offered safety from the horrors of war, it also imposed a sense of confinement and isolation. The refugees, many of whom had lost loved ones or experienced trauma, grappled with survivor’s guilt and anxiety about their future. Relationships within the camp could be tense, as cultural and religious differences and stress sometimes led to conflict.  

Education

Education played a crucial role in the lives of refugees at Fort Ontario, offering a sense of normalcy and stability during a time of upheaval. Despite the challenges of camp life, a dedicated effort was made to provide schooling for both children and adults. Schooling not only kept young minds engaged but also helped prepare the refugees for potential integration into American society.  Shortly after the refugees arrived at Fort Ontario in August 1944, it became clear that education would be vital to maintaining morale and fostering community. The U.S. government, along with aid organizations and camp administrators, quickly organized educational programs within the camp. Classrooms were set up in converted barracks and community rooms, utilizing whatever resources were available. Teachers were drawn from both the refugee population and local Oswego educators who volunteered to assist. Some refugees who had previously been teachers or educators in Europe also contributed, creating a diverse and dynamic teaching environment.  

The curriculum at Fort Ontario aimed to balance basic education, language acquisition, and vocational training.  For example, Learning English was a priority, as most refugees spoke little or no English upon arrival. Classes focused on conversational skills, grammar, and vocabulary to help both children and adults navigate daily life. History classes often emphasized American civics to help the refugees understand their new environment.  Adults were offered training in practical skills, including sewing, woodworking, and various trades, to prepare for potential employment.

Schooling at Fort Ontario provided a sense of routine and normalcy, which was crucial in maintaining morale. For children, it offered an environment where they could learn, play, and build friendships, helping them to reclaim part of their lost childhood. For adults, vocational training and English classes were seen as a pathway to potential self-sufficiency. As the war ended and the future of the refugees remained uncertain, these skills proved invaluable when many sought permanent residency in the United States. 

The perimeter of the camp was surrounded by six-feet tall chain-link fences topped with barbed wire. Initially, plans were made to install spotlights along the existing 6-foot chain-link fence and have 150 armed guards around the camp perimeter, but neither were implemented.  Armed guards monitored the entrance and patrolled the area, not because the refugees were considered dangerous but to maintain security and order.

The fences served multiple purposes: there was an underlying fear of possible espionage or sabotage during wartime, so the fences helped control who entered and exited the camp. The government also wanted to ensure that refugees did not mingle freely with the local Oswego community. While the fences were seen as a means of keeping refugees in, they also symbolized keeping the outside world—and its potential dangers—out. 

For many refugees, particularly those who had endured Nazi concentration camps or ghetto life in Europe, the sight of barbed wire evoked traumatic memories. Despite the intentions behind them, the fences served as a painful reminder of past oppression and imprisonment. Even though they were technically not prisoners, the refugees felt confined. They could not leave the camp without special permission, and guards controlled their movements. This restricted freedom contrasted sharply with their hopes of starting a new life in the United States. 

The fences not only separated the refugees from the world beyond but also reinforced a sense of alienation from the local Oswego residents. Though some locals were supportive and curious about the newcomers, others were wary and even resentful. The physical barrier made it clear that the refugees were outsiders—protected yet excluded.  Occasionally, Oswego residents would approach the fences to interact with the refugees, exchanging greetings or small gifts through the gaps. Over time, as the community became more accepting, supervised excursions into town were organized, but the fences remained a potent symbol of division. 

Both refugees and Oswegonians started to climb over and under the fence. Eventually, a hole was created in the fence, allowing new friends to visit with each other. However, for some, the fence was still an obstacle. Walter Greenburg explained “There was a fence, and that fence separated me from the outside world. How can a young child differentiate the life on side from the other.” 6 

The irony of Fort Ontario’s fences was that a place meant to offer refuge and safety bore a resemblance to the confinement that refugees had escaped. Although conditions within the camp were far more humane and safer compared to Nazi camps, the barriers symbolized how the refugees were caught between freedom and captivity—physically safe but psychologically and socially confined. 

Closure and Aftermath

After the war ended and the camp was closed in February 1946, the fences were taken down as the site returned to its historical function as a military fort and later a public park. Today, Fort Ontario serves as a historic site and museum, where remnants of the camp’s past are preserved to tell the story of its unique place in World War II history. But in retrospect, the fences at Fort Ontario Refugee Camp are a powerful symbol of the ambivalence of American refugee policy during the war—offering sanctuary but maintaining distance, granting safety but limiting freedom. 

One Surivor's Story

Manya Hartmeyer Breuer’s story is one of resilience, courage, and survival. Born in Berlin, Germany, Manya grew up in a Jewish family during a time of increasing danger and persecution under the Nazi regime. As Hitler rose to power, life became increasingly precarious for Jewish families like hers.  In 1939, as the Nazi grip tightened, Manya fled Berlin. She spent the next five years evading capture across Europe, experiencing unimaginable hardship and fear. During this period, she faced the loss of loved ones and the constant threat of deportation to concentration camps. In the end, she survived five concentration camps; in one, she endured a beating so severe that she huddled in a corner for weeks, unable to move. After fleeing over the Alps to Rome, wearing only summer clothing, she hid in a convent where she subsisted for months on moldy chestnuts. “I found myself alone in this convent, where I was, of course, protected, but in mortal danger because even there the Germans came in. They had penetrated; they had overwhelmed Italy.  It was very close, every day, to be deported. I knew that. I knew that when they get me I would not come out alive.” One day, while walking through the city with false papers, she stood before a little synagogue in the shadow of the Coliseum and felt as hunted as the early Christians who were martyred in the Roman amphitheater. “When the Allies liberated Rome in June 1944, my first step was to go back to that little synagogue to thank God” she said. It was while she was in the synagogue that she met the U.S. officials who helped her secure a coveted spot on Ruth Gruber’s mission.  

At one point, Manya’s father had given her his cotton shirt to protect her from the cold; she refused to take it off long after she arrived at Fort Oswego.  The shirt was the sole memento she has left of him. Manya and Ernst wanted to get married on the ship but were told by the ship’s captain that since the U.S.S. Henry Gibbins was a war ship, it was not possible for him to marry them.

Upon arrival in Oswego, Manya expressed profound gratitude, stating, "All of a sudden, I was brought back to the sun, to sunshine and life. And I faced the beautiful country that took me in, which I was forever grateful."  During her time at the camp, Manya became part of a close-knit community, and despite the camp's restrictions, residents worked together to create a semblance of normal life.  Manya finally met Breuer under the chuppah (wedding canopy) on the parade ground.  The balmy August morning began as the survivor and her friends raced around the camp, picking wildflowers for her bridal bouquet. Later, in a barracks room, Gruber and her mother helped Manya slip into a borrowed gray gown and a white silk veil Ruth’s mother had crocheted for the occasion. A little after 10 a.m., Mama Gruber helped escort Manya down the aisle, in lieu of her own mother. “I will always love you for this,” the survivor told her. Manya and Ernst’s wedding was one of the early examples of new beginnings fostered within the camp's confines. Their daughter was born at Fort Ontario. 

“I feel like I was left here, in this world, from the Holocaust, for a reason. I feel this energy that was given to me to fully develop my life here in the United States and live in America as a human being as everybody else. And being left from such a horror is to be like a messenger to let the world know what it is like to have faced a world of hate and prejudice and not letting any other human being live.”  -Manya Breuer 

Voices of Fort Ontario:  Oral Testimony from former Residents with questions

Ivo Lederer Summing up the experience of the Safe Haven refugees (1:36): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MFbeJ9UJKgY 

1. Ivo Lederer speaks to “three stories.” What are these three stories?  

2. Sum up the description that Ivo Lederer provides each of these three stories. 

3. Which of the three stories struck you as being the most important and why? 

Maurice Kamhi Escaping Italy (1:59): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6KC7rJh4XC0 

1. What happened when Maurice Kamhi and his fellow refugees arrived in northern Italy. Why did they want to get to southern Italy?   

2. Why was Maurice Kamhi not on the first fishing boat?    

3. How did the second fishing boat which carried Maurice Kamhi avoided being machine gunned?   

4. How does Maurice Kamhi describe the clouds?   

The Voyage (1:43): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RYSsTCmAf1E 

1. Along with remembering the crowding on the ship, the female voice remembers the food and, in particular, describes a red food that jiggled. What was it?   

2. How did the refugees travel to the United States?   

3. How does the first male voice (Ivo Lederer) describe his excitement of being on the ship?  

4. What happened when the female voice was given chewing gum by an American soldier? How does the second male voice (Maurice Kamhi) describe the effort made by the United States to accept these refugees? 

5. How does the second male voice (Maurice Kamhi) describe the feeling of safety?  

Coming to America (1:11): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IvAEPYv19EY 

1. How does the first male voice (Ido Lederer) the ship’s arrival in New York City harbor? How does the first female voice describe being in Oswego?  

2. How does the second female voice describe her arrival at the camp in Oswego?