Bosnia

Between April 1992 and November 1995, an estimated 100,000 people were killed, 80% of whom were Bosnian Muslims. The ethnic cleansing campaign also included the systemic rape of an estimated 20,000 to 60,000 women.

Historical Background

Bosnia has long been a culturally diverse region in Europe. Under Ottoman rule beginning in the 15th century, the capital city of Sarajevo became a refuge for Jews and Muslims fleeing persecution during the Spanish Reconquista, fostering a tradition of religious tolerance. However, in the 19th century, nationalist movements spread across Europe, fueling anti-Ottoman sentiment and intensifying hostility toward Muslims. Serbian nationalists, in particular, glorified the 14th-century Battle of Kosovo and Prince Lazar Hrebeljanović, whose failed defense against Ottoman forces became a rallying cry for Serbian resistance. In nationalist retellings, Muslims were portrayed as enemies of a unified Serbia, a group that "polluted" the Slavic race. By 1830, Serbia had gained independence from the Ottoman Empire and sought to expand its territory. 

Bosnia and Herzegovina remained under Ottoman rule until 1908 when the Austro-Hungarian Empire annexed the region during a period of political instability for the Ottomans. While Sarajevo continued to be a multi-ethnic city, Serbian nationalist sentiment intensified, particularly in response to the annexation. This tension culminated in the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo by Gavrilo Princip, a member of the nationalist group Black Hand, which sought to unify Slavic states under Serbian leadership. Serbia supported this cause, and the assassination ultimately triggered World War I. 

Following World War I, Yugoslavia—originally known as the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes—was formed from the remnants of the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman Empires. The new nation was home to a diverse population: Croats, who were Roman Catholic and aligned culturally with Western Europe; Serbs, a Slavic people practicing Eastern Orthodox Christianity; and Bosnian Muslims. However, tensions arose between the Serbian-led monarchy and other ethnic groups. 

During World War II, nationalist factions in Yugoslavia aligned with Nazi Germany in pursuit of extreme nationalist ambitions. Bosnia, then under the control of a Croatian-dominated far-right regime, became a center for the persecution of Jews, Sinti, and Serbs. 

After the war, a communist partisan movement led by Josip Broz Tito successfully ousted the Nazis, and Yugoslavia emerged as a communist state. While communist rule suppressed nationalist identities, deep-seated ethnic tensions persisted beneath the surface, ultimately erupting in the conflicts that followed Yugoslavia’s collapse in the 1990s. 

Genocide Triggers

Following the death of Josip Broz Tito in 1980, the centralized control that had held Yugoslavia’s diverse ethnic groups together began to weaken. Throughout the 1980s, various ethnic groups began to push for independence from the Yugoslav state. In response, Serbian nationalists, fearing the dissolution of Yugoslavia, reignited calls for a "Greater Serbia" — a vision of a unified state dominated by Serbs. Slobodan Milosevic, a Serbian politician, quickly embraced this rhetoric, promoting Serbian political and ethnic supremacy. To justify their agenda, Milosevic and other nationalist leaders often referenced the atrocities committed against Serbs during World War II, while simultaneously using state-controlled media to spread fabricated stories of violence against Serbs in neighboring republics. These false narratives fueled fear and division, heightening ethnic tensions across the region. 

In 1989, Milosevic was elected president of Serbia and implemented constitutional reforms that advanced a Serbian nationalist agenda. Under his leadership, the Yugoslav People's Army — originally intended to promote unity among the country's diverse populations — became increasingly dominated by Serbs, as Bosnian Muslims and other ethnic groups were systematically excluded from high-ranking positions and strategic roles. This shift in military power placed minority groups, particularly Bosnian Muslims, at significant risk. 

By 1991, as the Soviet Union collapsed and newly independent nation-states emerged, various regions within Yugoslavia began declaring independence. Slovenia seceded relatively peacefully after a brief 10-day war, while a prolonged and destructive conflict with the Serbian-led Yugoslav army marked Croatia's path to freedom. 

Bosnia and Herzegovina posed a particularly complex challenge. As one of the most ethnically diverse republics within Yugoslavia, its population consisted of Bosnian Serbs, Bosnian Croats, and Bosniaks (Bosnian Muslims). This diversity complicated the question of independence, as any decision to remain in Yugoslavia or break away would inevitably alienate at least one of the major ethnic groups. 

On March 1, 1992, Bosnia held a referendum to determine whether the region should declare independence from Yugoslavia. The results were overwhelmingly in favor, with 99.4% of voters supporting independence. However, the Bosnian Serb population boycotted the vote, refusing to recognize its legitimacy. Two rival governments emerged in response: the Republika Srpska, a Serb-controlled government backed by the Yugoslav National Army, and a Croat-Muslim coalition government. This deep political division, coupled with pre-existing ethnic tensions, ultimately triggered the outbreak of war. 

Implementation of Genocide

With the support of the president of Yugoslavia, Slobodan Milošević, and the Serbian government in Belgrade, Bosnian Serbs led by Radovan Karadžić began a campaign of genocide against Bosniaks within the autonomous Serb region. In early April of 1992, Bosnian Serb forces attacked the northern and eastern parts of Bosnia, expelling and killing non-Serb populations, and looting and destroying their property and cultural heritage sites, including mosques.   

According to the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia, during meetings with Radovan Karadžić  “‘it had been decided that one-third of Muslims would be killed, one-third would be converted to the Orthodox religion, and a third would leave on their own,” and thus all Muslims would disappear from Bosnia.”4   

Several detention camps started their operation during this time, where Bosnian Serb forces detained, forced labor, or killed thousands of Bosnian Muslim and Bosnian Croat detainees.   

Evidence before the Trial Chamber indicated that:  

• Keraterm Camp in Prijedor held 570 detainees in a single room 

• KP Dom in Foča kept 18 detainees in a room designed for solitary confinement 

• Omarska Camp in Prijedor held 200 individuals in a room of 40 square meters, and
  into the lavatories 

• Betoniarka Factory in Sanski forced most detainees to sleep sitting upright, as there was no room to lie down 

Other evidence before the Trial Chamber suggests that Bosnian Muslim and/or Bosnian Croat detainees were denied or received inadequate medical care. 

• Betoniarka Factory in Sanski allegedly had no medical facilities for detainees 

• KP Dom in Foča had inadequate medical care, and isolated detainees were denied
  all access to medical care 

• Keraterm Camp in Prijedor denied care to detainees despite many suffering from
  dysentery as well as beating injuries 

Finally, the Trial Chamber received further evidence of the mistreatment of Bosnian Muslims and Bosnian Croats.  

• Given insufficient or no food, leading to malnutrition, starvation, and severe weight loss  

• Deprived of water 

• Denied access to proper toilet or bathing facilities, leading to the spread of disease.5   

In April 1992, the Bosnian Serb army laid siege on the capital city of Sarajevo, putting civilians into a battle zone of constant shelling and sniper attacks.  

By the end of spring 1992, the Bosnian War devolved into a conflict between Serbian and Croat separatist forces. The conflict reached its peak in the fall of 1993 in central Bosnia and northern parts of Herzegovina when both parties committed atrocities against the civilian population on the other side and formed several detention camps. The conflict between the Bosnian Croat separatist forces and the Bosnian Army ended in 1994. Bosnian Muslims, Bosniaks, were often caught in the crossfire of these two groups and targeted by both.  

The Srebrenica Genocide 
In March 1995, Radovan Karadžić, the President of the Bosnian-Serb government known as Republika Srpska, issued Directive 7, ordering his military forces to eliminate the Bosniak population in Srebrenica. The directive stated: “By planned and well-thought-out combat operations, create an unbearable situation of total insecurity with no hope of further survival or life for inhabitants of Srebrenica and Žepa.” This document signaled the deliberate targeting of Bosniak civilians and paved the way for the largest massacre in Europe since the Holocaust. 

Despite the presence of United Nations peacekeepers, the Bosnian Serb Army, led by General Ratko Mladić, launched a coordinated assault on Srebrenica in June and July of 1995. As the city fell, the Serb forces separated men and teenage boys from the women and young children. Over the course of several days, more than 8,000 Bosniak men and boys were systematically executed, while over 30,000 women, children, and elderly were forcibly expelled from the region. Countless women were subjected to rape and other forms of sexual violence during their forced displacement. 

In a chilling moment captured by Belgrade’s media, General Mladić stood with a camera crew just outside Srebrenica and declared: “We present this city to the Serbian people as a gift. Finally, after the rebellion of the Dahis, the time has come to take revenge on the Turks in this region.” By invoking the historical memory of the Ottoman Empire’s rule over Serbia, Mladić equated modern-day Bosniaks with the Ottoman Turks — justifying their extermination as a form of vengeance for centuries-old grievances. The Dahis, mentioned in his speech, were Ottoman mercenaries who oppressed Serbians in the 19th century. For Mladić, the Bosnian Muslims were merely an extension of that past oppression — and therefore, their destruction was presented as a symbolic act of historical retribution. 

In an effort to cover up their crimes, the Bosnian Serb Army later exhumed the bodies from mass graves and reburied them in smaller, scattered locations to conceal evidence of the massacre. Despite their efforts, the scale of the genocide could not be hidden. The massacre at Srebrenica remains one of the darkest chapters in modern European history. 

International Reponse

Despite widespread awareness of the atrocities committed during the Bosnian War, the international community debated how and when to intervene. By 1992, major news outlets had begun reporting on the concentration camps established in Bosnian-Serb-controlled territories, and one of the most striking moments occurred when ITN, a British news agency, gained access to the Omarska concentration camp. The footage they captured — emaciated prisoners behind barbed wire — deliberately evoked imagery reminiscent of Nazi concentration camps during World War II. When this footage aired in Europe and the United States, it shocked viewers and pressured global leaders to address the crisis publicly. President George H.W. Bush made his first public statement regarding the “ethnic cleansing” in response to these harrowing images, bringing the horrors of the Bosnian War into the homes of millions. 

In response to escalating violence, the United Nations Security Council imposed an arms embargo on the region, intending to reduce the flow of weapons. However, this action unintentionally disadvantaged the Bosniak population, as the Bosnian Serb Army continued to receive weapons and support from the Yugoslav People’s Army. Without adequate resources for self-defense, the Bosniak population remained vulnerable to systemic violence. 

As the conflict intensified, the United Nations established several “safe zones” to protect civilians, including the cities of Žepa and Srebrenica in eastern Bosnia. These cities quickly became overwhelmed with refugees, far exceeding their capacity to provide food, shelter, and medical care. In response, the United Nations deployed peacekeeping troops to aid civilians and maintain security, though they were not authorized to engage in combat. 

Legacy and Aftermath

The international community eventually intervened after years of mounting atrocities. In 1995, following a sustained NATO bombing campaign against Bosnian Serb military targets, Serbian leaders were brought to the negotiating table. The result was the Dayton Accords, a peace agreement formally ending the Bosnian War. The accord established a two-entity system: the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (primarily Bosniak and Croat) and Republika Srpska (primarily Bosnian Serb). While the agreement ended large-scale violence, it left Bosnia with a fragmented government and deep ethnic divisions that persist today. 

In the aftermath of the war, the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) was established to prosecute individuals responsible for war crimes, crimes against humanity, and genocide. In 2004, the ICTY ruled in Prosecutor v. Krstić that the massacre at Srebrenica constituted genocide, marking the first time since World War II that a European court legally defined an atrocity as genocide. High-ranking officials, including Radovan Karadžić and Ratko Mladić, were eventually arrested and convicted of genocide and war crimes. 

Despite international recognition of the genocide, denial persists in parts of Bosnia. Many Bosnian Serb leaders and politicians in Republika Srpska continue to deny the genocide or minimize its scale. This ongoing denial, paired with the ethnic divisions that remain under the Dayton Accords, continues to challenge Bosnia's path toward unity and healing.